Who Needs Internet Privacy? Playing the Devil's Advocate in a Seemingly Endless Debate

Do people really want internet privacy, or do they just want control over what content they share is seen and by who? It's no great mystery that what you publish online stays online, so what is the main issue people have with "the government stalking my Facebook"?

Cloud technology can be used for surveillance and tracking its users in many ways. In his book, “To the Cloud”, Vincent Mosco explains some of the negative consequences that can result from Cloud Computing technology. Detailed under the subheading ‘Privacy and Security’ he identifies the surveillance ability as one of the most worrisome threats or what he calls “dark clouds” that are forming within this seemingly safe and durable service. While it may appear to be a terrible invasion of privacy to the individual users, what is the worst thing that could happen to a user who is a good, honest person and global citizen if their data was compromised? In many common contexts, very little damage would be done. 

While revelations about personal information can be embarrassing or just plain irritating, it is important to keep in mind that it was the user themselves that shared it in the first place. The online world like the real world is becoming increasingly globalised and interconnected. Once something is published in digital form, it does not simply vanish from existence when you press delete, it could be very much alive somewhere, even within a backup generator in a Cloud system. While it seems we have the power to protect our accounts with ‘privacy settings’ and limit the audience of who sees our content, this is a façade, an ability that is completely out of our hands. According to Buchmann, “In the Western World, personal privacy concerns an individual freedom of self-determining how to reveal oneself in the ongoing interplay of the social world” (Buchmann 2013, p.18). Mosco however explains, using Facebook as an example that even if you set a post to be viewed by friends only, that doesn't mean a government official or a member of a data collecting service could not gain access to it. Even though people know this, sites such as Facebook really do make users feel like they own that space thus, “Right or wrong, if you want to know about someone, look on Facebook because that’s sort of where they bare their souls to the world.” (Taylor & Francis 2012, p. 97). This is the reality of the online space, one that is not a big mystery in this day and age.

One of the main issues that the government is concerned about is of course national security. Terrorism, while it is indeed seen and felt through physical displays is increasingly being organised and sourced online. According to Rudher, pro-terrorism jihad preachers are calling people to become “internet mujahidden”, meaning people undertaking jihad via an online space. They do this “…by setting up dedicated websites to cover specific areas of jihad, such as news about jihadist activities and operations or jihadist literature, what he termed ‘WWW Jihad” (Rudner 2016, p. 27). In terms of activity surveillance, web searches made by individual users can be recorded. This is a way of trying to stop acts of terrorism before they happen and also to stop harmful lines of communication between people who pose a danger to a great number of others. Mosco highlights his disgust in the nosiness of the government with a hypothetical example of a person being associated with terrorism after searching for pressure cookers and backpacks. While this is quite a hyperbolic statement, lets take it as a literal case. If this person were innocent, wouldn’t such suspicions easily be resolved? The rule of law is that a person is innocent until proven guilty thus, if there isn’t any proof, there is no ramification for the accused. While it could indeed be inconvenient or creepy that they know what you are ‘Googling’ in your free time, isn’t it always better to be safe than sorry? When put into perspective, the physical safety of a country or even a small community should definitely be prioritised over personal privacy in many cases. Mosco displaces his fear; instead of being worried about the government actively taking measures into preventing terrorism before it happens, he should be afraid of individuals such as himself who would rather keep their personal hobbies a secret. 

In truth, the people who have something sinister or illegal to hide are the only ones who are really ‘in danger’ when it comes to Cloud computing technology. The ‘threat’ on everyday citizens is almost non-existent or trivial at best. A media text, which demonstrates this idea, is Jake Kasdan’s 2014 American comedy film, Sex Tape. The film is about an ordinary married couple, Annie and Jay, who attempt to spice up their love life by making a sex tape using their iPad. After making it, Jay forgets to delete it and the video is synced to the Cloud, making it viewable to all of their friends and family. After some seriously crazy shenanigans, they are able to get the final drive back that contains a copy of the film. After watching the humiliating video once, they both physically destroy the drive eccentrically by smashing and burning it. A stressful verbal exchange between Annie and Jay in their car became the iconic quotation from the film: 

“Jay: It went up! It went up to the cloud!

Annie: You can’t get it down from the cloud?

Jay: Nobody understands the cloud! It’s a mystery!”

Ignorance of how Cloud computing works is very true among the majority of its users. This fact is also acknowledged by Mosco and emphasised when he says some people even think the cloud has something to do with the weather, an actual ‘cloud’. While this is problematic to an extent, how harmful is this? The threat of the video getting out is the complication of the narrative. It could cause damage to Annie and Jay’s reputation but is definitely more annoying and embarrassing than dangerous. Even if the video did make its way onto the Internet and seen by the public or was seen during surveillance procedures and viewed by government IT officials, it isn’t incriminating or out of the ordinary. Once put into context, the video would clearly be viewed as a silly mistake made by people within the aforementioned majority that believe they can use technological spaces like personal, secret diaries. Even out of context, the reason they made the tape is clear and not at all unheard of. The story is funny because it is cringe-worthy, and cringe-worthy because it is relatable; very many people within the target audience have something in cyber form they wouldn't want others to see. 

Cloud technology is also being used for surveillance purposes closer to home. In August this year, the New York Post posted an article by Michael Kaplan with the title: ‘Catching a Cheating Partner Has Never Been Easier’. The article discussed how women and men on occasion have used the Cloud to catch their partners in the act of marital infidelity. They set up small video cameras in their homes before leaving for business trips that were connected to the Cloud, so the footage could be accessed from their personal devices while physically being far away. Some people in the article have used the footage for divorce cases. This surveillance is interesting as it demonstrates the ability of the camera to be an all-knowing eye, a recordable, unbiased “eye-witness” account that can even stand up in court. If you tried to see this as a negative innovation, the idea of being watched is a ‘creepy’ notion but only the people that are doing the wrong thing are suffering as a result of it. This form of surveillance is really no different from shop security cameras that are used to catch thieves. Being watched doing completely ordinary and legal everyday activities should be something you should accept if you want to live in peaceful and secure environment.

In his book, Mosco makes a point that cloud data Internet takes away people’s ability to self-develop and also makes personalities a commodity as what we search and engage with online can be used to collect data for commercial marketing purposes. Firstly, there is nobody and nothing making a person use cloud technology or the Internet at all.

If you feel the need for privacy and separateness from the Internet to develop yourself, you can just do it! In addition, no one makes you write or share anything you do not want to. On social media for example, people could keep their personal profile simple and go out into the real world and discover themselves. As well as this, what is most problematic about this entire fear of invasion of privacy is that it is not really about ‘privacy’ at all. If people were worried about people finding out about them, they would not engage in online spaces. Lack of control over how people see them is the real fear. Going back to the illusion of ownership over online spaces, some feel that by allowing a selected audience to see certain information, they can manufacture an online identity for themselves (Wilken & McCosker 2014). Technologies that can share information involuntarily are frightening in this way. 

In regards to the threat of commercial use of information, how is this a bad thing? While it may at first seem terribly sneaky or volatile, what is really being done is good for both the users and the commercial companies. Commercialism is not the enemy but rather is an essential feature of society. The economy must go on. By collecting information on what people like through surveillance, they can find out what they need to produce and sell without having to inconvenience consumers by waving surveys in our faces and having to conduct expensive target audience research projects. When viewed in this way, surveillance information gathering by commercial companies goes beyond being convenient to consumers as they can help them do a better job of providing what they need and want to buy without having to change their normal activities at all. Worry or irritation about this kind of surveillance is completely unfounded and irrational.

In conclusion, Cloud technology can be used for surveillance and tracking its users in many ways. It can be utilised for serious purposes such as by the government to locate terrorist plots, on a domestic level and for commercial purposes. In his book, “To the Cloud”, Vincent Mosco explains under the subheading ‘Privacy and Security’ that the surveillance ability is one of the most worrisome threats or what he calls “dark clouds” that are forming within this seemingly safe and durable service. When looked at closely and put into practical contexts, the negative consequences that fall under this category are minimal and frivolous. The Cloud Computing technology’s surveillance ability creates transparency within the online and digitalised environment. While sometimes transparency is not welcomed, secrecy is not a reasonable expectation as control over one’s own content is limited. While it may at first appear to be a terrible invasion of privacy to the individual users, what is the worst thing that could happen to a user who is a good, honest person and global citizen if their data was compromised? In many common contexts, very little to no true damage would be done. While this is a conservative view, it is a practical one.

References

Books:

Buuchmann, J. (2013), Internet Privacy: Options for Adequate Realisation, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

Collins-Mayo, S & Mayo, B. & Savage, S. (2011), Making Sense of Generation Y: The World View of 15-25 Year Olds, Church House Publishing, London

Mosco, V. (2014), To the Cloud: Big Data in a Turbulent World, Paradigm Publishers, New York

Rudher, M. (2016) ‘ “Electronic Jihad”: The Internet as Al-Qaeda’s Cataylst for Global Terror’, Violent Extremism Online: New Perspective on Terrorism and the Internet, Routledge, New York

Taylor & Francis. (2012), Internet and Surveillance: The Challenges of Web 2.0 and Social Media, Routledge, New York

Wilken,R. & McCosker, A. (2014). ‘Social Selves’, The Media and Communications in Australia, 4th ed, Crows Nest, Allen and Unwin, Australia

Websites:

IMDb. (2014), ‘Sex Tape (2014) Synopsis’, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1956620/synopsis?ref_=tt_stry_pl

Accessed on 3/9/16

Kaplan, M. (2016), ‘Catching a Cheating Partner has Never Been Easier’, http://nypost.com/2016/08/11/catching-a-cheating-partner-has-never-been-easier/

Accessed on 4/9/16

TechTarget. (2015), ‘Expert Insight: Cloud Computing Defined’, http://docs.media.bitpipe.com/io_10x/io_100433/item_419064/HPandIntel_sCloudComputing_SO%23034437_E-Guide_052611.pdf

Accessed on 2/9/16

Videos:

FilmIsNow Movie Trailers. 2014, Sex Tape Official Trailer(2014) HD, online video, 24 April, viewed on 2 September 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZoe4mMXcv4

Assessing the Historicity of Siddhartha Gautama, According to Early Buddhist Texts

Siddhartha Gautama, the former Indian Prince, first Bodhisattva and the founder of Buddhism is an incredibly important person to the faith. In old and new artworks, texts and writings, he is portrayed as having reached the ultimate state of peace and contentment in his existence.

While knowledge can be learnt, wisdom is earned and through this patience and unfaltering concentration on what is truly important in this world, he achieved perfection, becoming a model for all of humanity to strive towards. A recurring question that is asked about many important religious figures throughout time is whether they were real in a historical sense. Was Siddhartha Gautama an actual man who walked and lived on this Earth those thousands of years ago? The man who was the Buddha appears in many sources but whether those can prove historicity is uncertain. 

The titles and names in which the Buddha is given in ancient Indian texts are telling of his function, character and also details of who this man was. 'Gautama' which he is often called is a clan name thus links him to others in history who may have common ancestry. 'Sakayamuni' contains the word 'sakya' which refers to the Sakya people, a group where Buddha came from. All together, the word 'sakayamuni' can be translated as the 'sage of the Sakyas' reaffirming that he is a person that had attained wisdom in which philosophers strive to gain and that he was part of the Sakya people. 'Bhagava' is an honorific used referring to saviours and deities highlighting that he is held in equal esteem to that of a perfect 'chosen one' or as divine and above human existence. His other three commonly used names are 'Buddha' which means 'The Awakened’, 'Tathagata' meaning 'Thus gone' and 'Bodhisattva' meaning 'enlightened-being'. The latter is a term used in Mahayana Buddhist sources. These three highlight how he has reached and achieved the most ultimate goal of life there is, but also empathises that he remains on Earth in order to do good for others such as the sick and poor. As Pye points out, "it is striking that there is no historically well attested personal given name" (Pye, M. (1979) p. 3-19) for the Buddha however, considering these array of names and what they mean and suggest does tell us a lot about who this person was. He was wise but also morally pure and sympathetic towards those in need. 

While the above details do place the Buddha in a certain area and time, thought to be 2300BCE, hard evidence is not present. In order to find some clarity, scholars have looked into the historical setting in the time where the Buddha may have lived. In the ancient Buddhist scriptures, the 'sixteen great kingdoms' are discussed and detailed. Each of these kingdoms were "apparently tribal states that were struggling for power." Of these, the kingdom of Koushala and Magadha were the most powerful. The Shakyas, the group where the Buddha is said to be from in a political sense were rather frail and highly dependent on the Koushala kingdom. The Buddha was said to have told the king of Magadha while travelling south of the Shakya base in Kapilavastu according to early Buddhist scriptures. The exact political standing of the Shakyas is disputed by scholars however, it can be concluded that it was not prominent and likely to be overtaken by another state. According to Ikeda, it is very probable that the bad political position of his home and the pressure on his shoulders to make it a greater state when he came to throne would have been a contributing factor to him leaving and undertaking a religious life instead (Ikeda,D. (1976), p. 3-15). While this is definitely an interesting theory, that is all it can be without the evidence it lacks. As Nelson points out, "recorded history goes back only a thousand years" thus he insists "our dawn is shrouded in mystery"(Nelson, W. (1996), p. 15-38). In the time of the Buddha, history was not recorded by writing it down; rather, a large amount of important information was transferred between people by word of mouth and conserved through memorisation. This was mainly done by the Brahmins who were the intellectual cast of priests. The written ancient texts were not actually written down until three hundred or four hundred years after the Buddha died. Since memory is subject to change, and different people will remember and interpret stories in various ways, when it was written down, it would most likely be quite different to the original. According to Carrifers, “Some of the Buddha’s words were lost, others misunderstood...the monks added a good deal themselves, and in particular the figure of the Buddha tended to be magnified" (Carrithers, M. (2001), p. 1-11). For the uneducated or lay people, art was used to tell stories and to instruct others. While several of these artefacts have survived for thousands of years, like with the spoken word stories, art is very much up to interpretation. This subjectiveness is contrary to the objective nature of factual evidence.

While the stories and ‘legends’ of the Buddha, if you could call them that have been carried down for thousands of years, they are not to be taken literally if you were approaching them in search for historicity. Whether they are told in through texts or art, they are highly symbolic and miraculous thus are unrealistic to the objective historian. For example, Queen Maya, the woman who mothered the Buddha was said to have immaculately conceived him. One night, she dreamed of a white elephant descending into her womb. The child was fully formed, the size of a six month year old and was not supported or connected to Queen Maya’s body. This dream is depicted in many artworks including the Bharhut Stupa, a rock carving from 2nd-1st century BC. In order for the baby to be protected while being in the mortal womb of Queen Maya, he was encased in jewelled tabernacle. The birth itself was amazing as additionally, the baby did not cry and was also able to walk seven steps immediately. The event was indeed miraculous and matched a story in the Rig Veda about Indra, a god who was also birthed by first entering his human mother’s side. Foucher adds that the cesarean birth left Queen Maya with no scars. He highlights that while “it was absolutely necessary that the Buddha’s birth be superhuman...it must not become inhuman.” (Foucher, A. (1972) p. 22-30) This is a very important point to keep in consideration when especially looking at what the Buddhist faith offers. It is taught that any person can achieve Nirvana and be like the Buddha however if the Buddha was not a human person, he would not be an appropriate and realistic role model to follow. In terms of looking at the historicity of the story, Radhakrishnan asserts that “Great minds make individual contributions of permanent value to the thought of their age; but they do not, and cannot, altogether transcend the age in which they live.” (Radhakrishnan, S. (1949), p. 33-51) You can conclude that the Buddha was held in such high esteem and value to be likened to a god however must still insist he was a human person or at least lived a human existence amongst us at a certain fixed point in time. 

Whether we can ever truly know and understand what the Buddha thought, said and did is a significant area of contention. Gombich in his book What the Buddha Thought, dedicated the thirteenth chapter to dealing with the criticism he received about his work. A professor at an American University said "There is no solid (i.e. non-confessional) evidence that I know of to link them [the Upanishads] to Gotama (the man who started the ball rolling in whatever unknown way he did)." He goes on to say that it is silly to speak of what the Buddha believed and said with such certainty where there is no proof to back it up. Gombrich responds to this by highlighting that he had certainly not made the contents of his book up and that the information is in the original texts. He acknowledges the significance of Buddhism and that it "is a ball which was set rolling by someone whose ideas are not known and- one may presume what he writes can never be known." (Gombrich, R. (2012), p. 193-196) Considering his response, an important point to highlight is his that Gombrich does not refute the American professor and say that Siddhartha Gautama was definitely a historical figure who started Buddhism, rather he states that it would have been started by 'someone' and admits that it is impossible to fully know him or prove whether he was real. His statement is rather matter of fact and calm. Gombrich does not seem bothered that the validity of his study and entire book is being questioned which makes you wonder does historicity matter when it comes to religion? According to Radharkrishtan, the "value of life [is] determined by the mystery behind it, by an infinity which cannot be rationalised. The pain and evil of life would be unendurable if the empirical universe were all, if world and man were self-sufficient, if there was nothing beyond, higher, deeper and more mysterious." Thus, religion being involved in that which is above human understanding is not rational and must not be rational. Buddhism, like all other religions are systems of faith, that means adherents must choose to believe no matter what. Seeing is not believing. If there were hard facts that showed that Siddhartha Gautama, Jesus or Moses existed, then people who didn't believe in them would just be ignoring what is factually true while the believers would just accept it in a way that we know the sky is blue or the grass is green. There is nothing religious of faith based about this, mystery and ambiguity to an extent is an inextricable feature of religion. 

As religion is constantly changing, evolving and modernising in order to remain relevant to new generations and cultural contexts, what we know about the key figures in these religions also change. As aforementioned, due to the Buddha originally verbalising his teachings before history was written down, it is impossible to know the pure and original story. According to Penner, it is an especially "Western quest for the historical Buddha...this quest is based on an illusion because, as someone once wrote 'every text is always-already read'." ( However, just because you are unable to find the historical Buddha through unique or secondhand research does not mean that he lacks any less value as a role model of peaceful and fulfilling human living. Does reading a work of absolute fiction such as Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice mean it could not possibly have any effect on you because it is not fact? This is certainly not the case. As mentioned above, the Buddha's birth story was miraculous, super human but not inhuman. In his story, people can identify with his human qualities, trials and tribulations. As long as a character, real or not is relatable on some level, they can teach us about ourselves, what to do and what not to do. W.T. State in Ambedkar's book, The Buddha and His Dharma praises the moral and intellectual greatness of Buddhist ethics. "Knowledge has always been stressed by Buddhism as essential to salvation...the Christian scheme of thought the moral side of man has been divorced from the intellectual side. Far more of the world's misery is caused by stupidity and blind faith than by wickedness" (Ambedkar, B. (2011), p. 290-305). Even if the person Siddhartha Gautama was completely made up, it would not change the fact that he has had and continues to have a strong bearing and influence on many human lives throughout time.

In conclusion, Siddhartha Gautama, the former Indian Prince, first Bodhisattva and the founder of Buddhism appears in many sources whether he was a historical person who lived on this Earth is uncertain and may never be known. Indeed, as a character of an ancient story, the Buddha has been very much alive for thousands of years in written texts, art and in the hearts and minds of his believers and admirers. When looking at possible 'evidence' of his existence, scholars can conclude the time he may have lived in and even his home city but ultimately show that a creative person like him if not him had to have existed and kick started Buddhism. Whether he was real or not does not really matter a great deal, it does not make him any less important or powerful. Even characters in novels can be inspiring; even if they are made up, they were made up by humans and display humanity and a relatable and familiar way. Especially, when considering the nature of religion as faith based, having concrete historical evidence showing that significant people in their stories existed without a doubt makes belief in them unreligious. A religious belief in something or someone holds strong and true even if and especially if as Nelson said, the subject is shrouded in mystery.

References

B.R. Ambedkar, The Buddha and His Dharma: A Critical Edition, (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011),  290-305

Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 1-11

A. Foucher, The Life of the Buddha: According to the Ancient Texts and Monuments of India, (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1972), 22-30

Richard Gombrich, What the Buddha Thought, (Sheffield, Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2012), 193-196

Walter Henry Nelson, Gautama Buddha, (London: Luzac Oriental, 1996), 15-38

Daisaku Ikeda, Living Buddha, (New York: John Weatherhill, Inc., 1976), 3-15

Michael Pye, The Buddha, (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd, 1979), 3-19

S. Radhakrishnan, Gautama the Buddha, (Bombay: Hind Kitabs Ltd. Publishers, 1949) 33-51

Hans H. Penner, Rediscovering the Buddha, (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 113-122

Understanding the World Through Signs and Symbols: Semiotics and Mediation

Signs are omnisciently present in society and the codes used to decipher their meanings are firmly entrenched into the human psyche. By using the various language and visual techniques within the system of semiotics, mediators can manipulate signification to convey a certain meaning through their texts. They can also maintain a level of control over the audience’s interpretation and reactions to the text.  

Reading a text using this structural method however does have its limitations. The “…media…stimulate perceptions in audience members…at the time he or she receives the message.” (Graber (2006) p.195). Thus, the effectiveness of the techniques relies heavily on the audience’s social, cultural and historical contexts. The receivers find meaning by drawing associations between the message and their previous knowledge and experiences. The context of the text must be taken into consideration in order to fully comprehend the meaning and effect. Failure to acknowledge this would ultimately lead to a very narrow and possibly false reading of the text. 

Semiotics is a system theory introduced by Ferdlnand de Saussure concerning the study of signs. According to Mackay, “Any sound, word, image or object…” is a sign and the way in which they are “…organized with other signs into a system which is capable of carrying and expressing meaning is, from this point of view, ‘a language’”. (Mackay (1997) p.135). The two main types of signs are iconic signs (visual signs) and indexical signs (spoken or written signs). Signs are combination of the signifier (the material object conveying meaning) and the signified (the meaning which is communicated). A sign can connote and denote meaning. Denotation is the basic literal meaning whereas connotation is a deeper symbolic meaning. Various techniques are used to create this meaning. Metaphors compare two signs in order for them to be understood similarly for example, “that man is a pig”. This has negative conations implying, gluttony, laziness and possibly obesity. Symbols and images are also used. They are words, gestures, or visual features which represent something else. The difference between a symbol and an image is that symbols are socially established and well known (such as crosses of Christianity) whereas images are created by the mediator (for example, in a poem about child birth, a rope could represent the maternal bond). Metonyms are signs which are so highly symbolic that they become automatically associated to a larger idea. For example, ‘Wall’s Street’ no longer just refers to that particular street in New York; it represents the economic base of America and also the well-known Wall Street crash. Messages can reflect ideologies based on “ideal” systems of thought and concepts by reinforcing ‘myths’; socially accepted notions with no factual basis. They can also be framed within specific genres, (i.e. categories such as horror, comedy and documentary) each with their own specific discourse (or style of representation). 

The 2001 television segment presented by Matt Frei from the BBC covering the first 9/11 anniversary in both New York and at the Pentagon employs various semiotic techniques. Frei begins the program with the word ‘remember’. This connotes the simple act of recollecting past events however, in this context, ‘remembrance’ is a significant act of respect, honoring those who had died in the attack. This idea is anchored by the cut in of bagpipe music, which has ceremonial conations. The slow panning towards the image of an American flag, signifies patriotism and national freedom thus, this ‘remembering’ is depicted as a national duty for all American citizens. The focus of the report however “was private grief”, anchored by the close up footage of solemn-faced citizens. Frei describes the crowd of people “heading to ground zero”. After the attack, the media often referred to the site where the world trade center was as “ground zero”, the same name given to the “…epicenter of the Hiroshima atomic bomb that was appropriated to signify the devastation and enormity of the 9/11 attacks” (Kellner (2005) p.28). This allusion further dramatizes the high level of devastation caused.

The video footage of the crowd of New York civilians on their way to the memorial site uses synecdoche through close ups of holding hands and the crowds feet as they walk. The holding hands symbolize unity and connotes that the mourning is not only a personal reflection but is more holistically a time for all American citizens to remember as one nation. The crowd of feet denotes the significant amount of people present at the event, thus highlighting its importance. It connotes the busy city life of New York City. This is anchored in the dialogue: “A year ago at this very hour, these people were rushing to work, coffees and bagels in hand, it was just another Tuesday in Manhattan.” The coffee and bagels are both metonyms of busy New York City life. This is contrasted with the personification of “…the city that never kept quiet was lost for words” emphasising the shock felt by the civilians and their unpreparedness to comprehend such a traumatic event. 

9/11 is also represented as an international affront, not solely an American tragedy. Kellner said “The spectacle of terror was broadcast throughout the global village, with the whole world watching…” (Kellner (2005) p. 28).  Frei describes the event as “…one of those very rare events in history when almost everyone on the planet remembers exactly where they were and what they were doing…” The inclusive language of “everyone” and the entire “planet” connotes the event’s international significance. The reading of all the names was filmed fragmentally. The footage shifts from first the Mayor then to four pairs of people (two people per shot) who each say a name. The stand is adorned with the United States presidential seal. This signifies the dominance of the American government in the tribute and highlights the formal, official style of the procedure. Half way through this footage, Frei says “…not just Americans, almost 100 nationalities, a dozen religions, citizens of the world and victims of terror.” In the footage, the speakers were of various ethnic backgrounds, anchoring the idea of the event affecting not only a great number but also a large range of people.

Frei says: “Hundreds of bodies have not been found, will never be found.” By using the word “hundreds” instead of an estimated amount, it highlights that since there were so many fatalities, the exact amount is immeasurable. The shift from “have not” to “will never” denotes that under the circumstances, many people will not ever be accounted for. It also connotes that many families will never receive a full explanation thus leading to a lack of closure to their grief. During this dialogue the camera focuses on an older woman holding a portrait of a police officer, presumably her son and flowers. The laurel of flowers signifies both a sign of respect for either great accomplishment or as a means of paying homage to the dead. The photograph establishes the woman as a family griever. The fact her son is wearing his police uniform in the photograph makes the picture a symbol representing all of the police officers who died in the event who were also loved sons. As Frei says “…will never be found…” woman drops her head and starts to cry, emphasising her strong sense of anguish. Frei describes the memorial as “...still a masquerade”. The word “masquerade” signifies the act of dressing up, or in this context, pretending. This metaphor anchors the idea of a lack of closure and, more widely, the ineffectiveness of the ceremony in regards to achieving the justice. It only appears as a vehicle towards emotional resolve however, like a mask, this is fictitious.

President George Bush’s international address is depicted. As he comes to the stand, an establishing shot is used showing the stand in the center surrounded by red, white and blue and American flags highlighting the importance of patriotism in the form of national unity especially during crisis. George Bush wears an American flag pin, anchoring this idea of patriotism. As he speaks, the camera is close up, connoting a sense of intimacy, as if he is personally addressing each viewer. He also talks while making hand gestures, connoting his emotional investment into the event. He says “The enemy who struck us are determined and are resourceful. They will not be stopped by a sense of decency or a hint of conscience, but they will be stopped.” The use of very definitive ‘matter of fact’ sentences connotes a profound understanding of the problem and how it must be solved. His self-assured tone in his address gives him a sense of credibility and depicts him as a determined and committed leader. As he says “they will be stopped”, the camera cuts to two United States marines. They each nod their head denoting their agreement and connoting the United States military’s commitment to their duty of carrying out the President’s regime.

This text is a significant part of the history of representation in 9/11. However there are limitations in regards to using the system of semiotics in order to understand it. As said by Hall, the process of finding meaning from a representation “…does involve the use of language, of signs and images which stand for or represent things. But this is a far from simple or straightforward process.” (Hall (1997) p. 15). Semiotics as structural system of analysis relies on elements of textual construction such as selection of material, language and visual techniques. However, by solely focusing on these aspects, the context which shapes the text’s reception and interpretation is largely ignored. A receiver’s reading of a text is entirely dependent on their cultural, social and historical context. The only way a reader can find meaning within a text is through relating it to their past experiences. Each individual responder has “a mental model of the expected style… (recognised using)…prior learned knowledge… (and with this can)…read into it the values it embodies”. (Fowler (1991) p. 40). Thus; by not acknowledging these factors, this approach can lead the analyzer making a narrow and simplistic judgment of the text’s possible meaning.

Another issue relating to semiotic analysis is the concept of polysemy: “a process by which a sign bears multiple meanings.” (Danesi (2000) p.178). When relying only on the structural aspects of the text, it can sometimes become difficult to comprehend what exactly is being said. For example, the word “freedom” (Davis & Walton (1983) p.280) can have many different meanings. Considering the context of the text provides a much needed frame work for understanding what meanings would be relevant to the situation. For example, blue can signify sadness but in American politics, it signifies a political party. A major problem within the semiotics approach is that it can be overly analytical. When semantically breaking down a text, you are not reading it in the way the audience typically would have. “The way we read (quickly, slowly, superficially, attentively etc.) has significant effects on how signs are decoded.” (Bignell 2002) p. 63). Thus, carefully analyzing each frame could lead to the discovery of meaning not normally recognised by the original viewer leading to a possible overestimation of its level of influence.

Therefore, by using the various language and visual techniques within the system of semiotics, mediators can manipulate signification in their texts to convey a certain meaning. They can also maintain a level of control over the audience’s interpretation and reactions to the text. However, interpreting a text using this method does have its limitations. The effectiveness of the employed techniques heavily depends upon the individual receiver’s social, cultural and historical contexts. The only way a receiver can find meaning is through drawing parallels between the message and their previous knowledge and experiences. The context of the text must be taken into consideration in order to fully comprehend the meaning and effect. Failure to recognise this could ultimately lead to a misjudgment of the text’s significance for the targeted audience.

References

Books

Bignell, J. (2002), Media Semiotics: An Introduction, Manchester University Press

Danesi, M., (2000), Encyclopedic Dictionary of Semiotics, Media, and Communications, University of Toronto Press

Davis, H. & Walton, P. (1983), Language, Image, Media, Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell Publisher Limited

Fowler, R. (1991), Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press, New York, USA: Routledge

Graber, D. (2006), Mass Media & American Politics, Washington, DC, USA: CQ Press, a division of Congressional Quarterly Inc.

Hall, S., (1997), ‘The Work of Representation’ in Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices,London: Sage

Kellner, D. (2005), Media Spectacle and the Crisis of Democracy, Colorado, USA: Paradigm Publishers

Mackay, L. (ed.) (1997) Consumption and Everyday Life, London, Sage/ The Open University (Book 5 in this series)

Video

BBC Journalism (2010, July 7) Matt Frei- 9/11 anniversary, New York. Retrieved May 5, 2014, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGgyUqcCfNs